Modern Standard Hindi
Standard
Hindi, the official language of India, is based on the Khariboli dialect of the Delhi region and differs from
Urdu in that it is usually written in the indigenous Devanagari script of India and exhibits less Persian
influence than Urdu. Many scholars today employ a Sanskritized form of Hindi
developed primarily in Varanasi, the Hindu holy city, which is based
on the Eastern Hindi dialect of that region and thus a separate language from
official Standard Hindi. It has a literature of 500 years, with prose, poetry,
religion & philosophy, under the Bahmani Kings and later on Khutab Shahi
Adil Shahi etc. It is a living language, still prevalent all over the Deccan Plateau. Note that the term "Hindustani"
has generally fallen out of common usage in modern India, except to refer to a
style of Indian classical music
prevalent in northern India. The term used to refer to the language is
"Hindi", regardless of the mix of Persian or Sanskrit words used by
the speaker. One could conceive of a wide spectrum of dialects, with the highly
Persianized Urdu at one end of the spectrum and a heavily Sanskrit-based
dialect, spoken in the region around Varanasi, at the other end of the spectrum. In common
usage in India, the term "Hindi" includes all these dialects except
those at the Urdu end of the spectrum. Thus, the different meanings of the word
"Hindi" include, among others:
- standardized Hindi as taught in
schools throughout India,
- formal or official Hindi
advocated by Purushottam
Das Tandon and
as instituted by the post-independence Indian government, heavily influenced
by Sanskrit,
- the vernacular dialects of
Hindustani/Hindi-Urdu as spoken throughout India,
- the neutralized form of the
language used in popular television and films, or
- The more formal neutralized
form of the language used in broadcast and print news reports.
Hindi and Urdu
While,
at the spoken level, Urdu and Hindi are considered registers of a single language, they
differ vastly in literary and formal vocabulary; where literary Urdu draws heavily on
Persian and Arabic, literary Hindi draws
heavily on Sanskrit and to a lesser extent Prakrit. The grammar and base vocabulary (most
pronouns, verbs, ad positions, etc.) of both Urdu and Hindi, however, are the
same and derive from a Prakritic base, and both have a heavy Persian influence.
The
associated registers of Urdu and Hindi are known as "Hindi-Urdu". It
is perhaps the lingua franca of the west and north of the Indian subcontinent, though it is understood
fairly well in other regions also, especially in the urban areas. A common
vernacular sharing characteristics with Urdu, Sanskritized Hindi, and regional
Hindi, Hindi-Urdu is more commonly used as a vernacular than highly
Arabicized/Persianized Urdu or highly Sanskritized Hindi.
This
can be seen in the popular culture of Bollywood or, more generally, the vernacular of
Pakistanis and Indians which generally employs a lexicon common to both
"Urdu" and "Hindi" speakers. Minor subtleties in region
will also affect the 'brand' of Hindi-Urdu, sometimes pushing the Hindi-Urdu
closer to Urdu or to Hindi. One might reasonably assume that the language
spoken in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh (known for its beautiful usage of Urdu) and Varanasi (a holy city for Hindus and thus using
highly Sanskritized Hindi) is somewhat different.
Hindi-Urdu,
if both Hindi and Urdu are counted, is the third or second most widely spoken
language in the world after Mandarin and possibly English
Official status
Hindustani,
in its standardized registers, is the official language of both India (Hindi)
and Pakistan (Urdu).
Urdu,
the original standardized register of Hindustani, is the
national language of Pakistan, where it shares official language status with English. Although English is
used in most elite circles, and Punjabi and Pashto has a plurality of native
speakers, Urdu is the lingua franca and is expected to prevail. Urdu is also
one of the official languages of India, and in the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Delhi, Jammu and Kashmir, and Uttar Pradesh, Urdu has official language status. While
the government school system in most other states emphasizesModern Standard Hindi, at universities in cities
such as Lucknow, Aligarh and Hyderabad, Urdu is spoken and learned and is regarded
as a language of prestige.
Hindi,
the other standardized register of Hindustani, is declared by the Constitution of India as the "official
language (rājabhāshā) of the Union" (Art. 343(1)) (In this context,
'Union' means the Federal Government and not the entire country - India has 22 official
languages).
At the same time, however, the definitive text of Federal laws is officially
the English text and proceedings in the higher appellate courts must be
conducted in English. At the state level, Hindi is an official language in 9 of
the 28Indian
states
and three Union Territories (namely Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, and Haryana and UTs are Delhi, Chandigarh, Andaman and
Nicobar Islands).
In the remaining states Hindi is not an official language. In the state of
Tamil Nadu studying Hindi is not compulsory in the state curriculum. However an
option to take the same as second or third language does exist. In many other
states, studying Hindi is usually compulsory in the school curriculum as a
third language (the first two languages being the state's official language and
English), though the intensiveness of Hindi in the curriculum varies.
Hindustani
was the official language of India at the time of the British Raj, ending with the partition of India in 1947; the term was a
synonym for Urdu.
Hindi-Urdu outside South Asia
Besides
being the lingua franca of South Asia of India and Pakistan, Hindi-Urdu is
spoken among people of the South Asian diaspora and their descendants in North America, South America, the Caribbean, Europe, Africa, and the Middle East.
Hindi-Urdu
was also spoken widely in Burma during British rule as the
main language of the administration. Many older Burmese, particularly the Anglo-Indians and Anglo-Burmese of the country, still speak the language
although it has had no official status in the country since military rule.
"Hindustani"
as a term for other Hindi languages
Outside
of the subcontinent, the name Hindustani is frequently used in the sense
of "Indian", and may be applied to any of several other Hindi languages.
Fijian Hindustani (also called Fiji Hindi),
for example, descends not from Hindustani proper, but from one of the eastern
Hindi languages called Awadhi. It has a strong Bhojpuri influence that differentiates it from the
Awadhi spoken on the Indian subcontinent, though not to the extent of hindering
mutual understanding. It is spoken by nearly the entire Indo-Fijian community, 38.1% of Fiji's population,
regardless of ancestry.
Similarly,
Caribbean Hindustani is actually Bhojpuri as spoken in Suriname, Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, and Belize. Sarnami Hindustani
is the second most spoken language in Suriname after Dutch. This is due to the emigration of East Indians (known
locally as Hindoestanen in Suriname) from the
Indian states of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh in North India. Ethnic Indians form 37% of
the population in Suriname, the largest ethnic group there. Ethnic Indians also
make up around 45% of Guyana's population, but unlike in Suriname they have
mostly switched from Bhojpuri to English. In South Africa, Kenya and other parts of Africa,
older descendants of 18th century sugar cane workers also speak a variety of Bhojpuri as
their second language.[citation
Hindi-Urdu and Bollywood
The
predominant Indian film industry Bollywood, located in Mumbai, Maharashtra uses dialects of Hindi-Urdu, Awadhi, Rajasthani, Bhojpuri, Punjabi and Bambaiya Hindi, along with liberal use of English for the
dialogue and soundtrack lyrics.
Movie
titles are often screened in three scripts: Latin, Devanagari and Perso-Arabic.
The use of Urdu or Hindi in films depends on the film's context: historical
films set in the Delhi Sultanate or Mughal Empire are almost entirely in Urdu, while films
based on Hindu mythology make heavy use of Hindi
with Sanskrit vocabulary.
History of Hindi language
Round
about 500 AD there were regional Prakrits which were the source of modern
Indo-Aryan languages and the authors can think of these Prakrits as –
1. Eastern Prakrit or Magadhi.
2. Central Prakrit or
Ardha-Maagadhi.
3. Northern Prakrit, which may
be called Khasa or Himalayan Prakrit.
4. SauraseniPrakrit as current
in Western U.P. and parts of Eastern Punjab as well as of Rajasthan.
5. Possibly a special Prakrit
of Western Rajasthan, Saurashtra and Gurjara.
6. A Prakrit embracing
Northern and Western Punjab and Sind.
7. Possibly there was another
Prakrit, which was current in Malava. But it might have just been a variety of
Sauraseni.
8. We have the Prakrit current
in Maharashtra, which was this time confined only to the northern districts of
the present day Maratha country.
By
the end of 1300 a.d. the following Modern Indo-Aryan languages or groups had
become established.
- Bengali-Assamese
which in spite of differences in pronunciation came upon to be looked upon
as one language till 1500 AD.
- Oriya,
which remained close to Bengali but had its own development.
- Maithili,
the speech of North Bihar became fully established by 1300.
- Magahi,
the speech of South Bihar, which was very close to Maithili and although
was different in many ways did not create much literature.
- Bhojpuri
is an important language of Eastern India.
- Kosali
dialects, these became differentiated into its present day descendants,
Awadhi, Bagheli, Chattisgarhi. Kosali seems to have been cultivated very
early and we have a Sanskrit work that indicates that there was an attempt
to teach Sanskrit through the Old Kosala speech, goes back to the 1st
half of the 12th century.
- Brajabhasa
speech is connected with Bundeli and Kanauji; this is parts of modern day
Western U.P., parts of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.
- Old
Western Rajasthani, which after 1500 got bifurcated into Western
Rajasthani or Marwari and Gujarati on the other.
- Sindh speech derived out of the Old
VrachadaApabhramsa of Sind.
- Lastly we have the incipient Punjabi
language, mainly on a Western Punjabi basis.
We
also have Kashmiri as a Dardic speech profoundly modified by Indo Aryan, which
was taking shape by 1300.
Assamese
– Bengali which may be taken as two languages, considering that the political
history of Assam and Bengal were quite independent of each other from very
early times, Oriya – Maithili and Magahi as a wholly developed though connected
dialect, Bhojpuri – Kosali, also known as Gahwari, Brajabhasha with Kanauji and
Bundeli, perhaps not yet fully differentiated, the Rajasthani dialects, of
which the most important was the Marwari, largely used in literature and
Gujarati which went along with Marwari, Marathi and the connected Konkani
dialects, and then Punjabi both Western and Eastern and Sindhi.
Besides
there was a group of North Indian or Himalayan dialects, coming from the old
KhasaPrakrit of which the authors have no specimen until very late times.
Excepting Bengali-Assamese-Oriya-Marathi-Gujarati-Sindhi-Punjabi the speeches
of the North Indian plains have had a restricted literary employment during the
last one hundred years and people from the beginning of the 20th
century have accepted a form of Western Hindi (the Khariboli speech of Delhi)
as their language of education, literature and public life. It has become the national language while
Maithili, Magahi, Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Bagheli, Brajabhasa, Chattisgarhi with
other Central and Western Himalayan dialects being described as dialects of
Hindi. But that was not the case till about 150 years ago.
The
vocabulary of Hindi is chiefly derived from Sanskrit. Like other Indo-Aryan
languages Hindi in its present shape began to take shape around the 10th
century a.d. But before the 14th century it was highly influenced by
the SauraseniApabhramsa. Interestingly Sauraseni also gave birth to Punjabi.
(refer the article on Punjabi).
Oldest Hindi Mystico – Devotional Poetry - The padas and vanis of GorakhNatha 1150,
the great NathaPantha teacher, and other contemporary Yogis preaching the
philosophy and practice of hatha-yoga are also ascribed to this period. But
their language is very changed and it is difficult to decide how much of these
compositions are genuine. These poems emphasize the need for a pure life,
detachment from material prosperity, and real knowledge, which prepared the
ground for the bhakta poets of a later period.
The
article has two chapters –
- Covers
development of Hindi from 1300 to 1947.
- Scripts
in India of the Present Day
1300
to 1526
Western
Hindi
The
Khariboli form of Hindi which was accepted as the Official Language of India is
one of the youngest of the Indian languages. As such it did not come into any
literary use before 1800 a.d. and its effective literary employment started
after 1850. When we said Hindi literature it meant Brajbhasa the most important form of Western Hindi prior to
1850. It is customary to include in this expression Awadhi although it is
genetically of a different Prakrit origin from Western Hindi. Since we assumed
other languages to be dialects lots of literature written in other languages
became part of Hindi literature. For example devotional songs of Mirabai were
written in Rajasthani or Bhojpuri, Maithili, Garhwali speeches.
During
1000 to 1300 a.d. Western Hindi was evolving out of Apabhramsa. It was during
this period that a kind of linguistic hesitancy, that the first drafts of great
Rajput heroic romances like Prithvirajarasau took shape. They were mostly in
Western Hindi and they stand at the base of what may be described Hindi literature
as also of Rajasthani literature. The Brahman scholars were busy composing
works in Sanskrit, both stories and philosophical works but the revival
initiated by them on the basis of translations from the epics and Puranas was
to come later.
Amir
Khushrav 1253 to 1325 a well-known Persian poet was one of the earliest writers
of Hindi as well. Although the actual mass of Hindi compositions written by him
is quite small he was fully alive to the importance of Hindi. He was also the
author of Khaliq-Bari which is a brief dictionary in verse of Pers-Arabic and
Hindi. The book did a lot to spread Perso-Arabic words among the people of
North India and helped bring about the development of Urdu.
Between1300
to 1400 a.d. we do not find any writer in Hindi though compilation of
Apabhramsa texts and their study in a mixture of Rajsathani and Apabhramsa
appeared to have continued in the courts of Rajput chiefs and North India.
Hindi literature during the 15th century was dominated by Kabir.
The
abandon of faith in and love of God was a new strain in Indian religious
experience for which the North is indebted to the South. The Saints of Tamil
Nadu, Saivites or Vaishnavites had a deep love for God, which in turn formed
the basis of the Bhakti school. Two noted VaishnavaAcharyasRamananda 1400-1470
and Vallabhacharya 1473 to 1531 inspired many great personalities during this
period.
They
included Kabir. The former was an ardent devotee of Lord Ram, a great Sanskrit
scholar who wrote in Hindi too. The latter was a Sanskrit scholar who was a
devotee of Lord Krishna. He came from Andhra but made Mathura his main seat of
teaching. One of his disciples was Surdasa.
This
new Bhakti movement revolutionized Hindi language and literature. The language
became free from the unnecessary inhibitions and shackles of the Apabhramsa
tradition. The poets came from the masses, sincere in thought and behavior.
They used language that was familiar to the people.
A
number of Kabir’sdohas found in the Kabir canon is in pure Bhojpuri his native
language. But most of his writings are now available in a mixed language. This
is popularly known as sadhukkadaboli or the speech of wandering sadhus. It is
basically Western Hindi – Braja –bhasa and occasional forms of Awadhi. Guru
Nanak wrote in Western Hindi tinged with Punjabi.
Kosali or Awadhi or called Eastern Hindi
At
present there is little literary endeavor in Eastern Hindi since most speakers
have adopted western Hindi. However, Awadhi has been one of the earliest Indo
Aryan languages to be cultivated for literature. The oldest specimen of Awadhi
is found in Ukti-vyakti-prakarana of Damodara Pandita who flourished during the
first half of the 12th century. He wrote this book to teach Sanskrit
through his mother tongue which was a kind of old Awadhi. The Sufi tradition
which became established in India in the 14th century found a series
of writers mostly Muslim who took a number of poems of medieval Hindu
inspiration and wove them into poems in Awadhi, MaulanaDaud was probably the
first of them. The manuscripts of these poems in Awadhi are mostly Persian in
character due to the Muslim influence existing at that point of time.
1526
to 1707
The
greatest Hindi writer during this period was GosvamiTulsidasa, born in U.P. sometime in 1523. He wrote his masterpiece
Rama-charita-manas sometime in 1574 in his native Awadhi dialect. It narrates
the story of Rama and through it propounds the story of the Bhakti Cult.
Besides its literary importance it rendered a great service to the Hindus of
North India who were submerged under the flood of Islamic conquest.
Quote
Dr S K Chatterjee excerpts “Tulisdasa with his books did the greatest service
in strengthening the Hindus of North India in their old ways, culture which
seemed to be overwhelmed in the flood-side of an aggressive Islam and by the
side attacks on Hindu cultural life through covert preaching against orthodoxy,
which inculcated the study of Sanskrit books, going to places of pilgrimages
and performance of various religious rites. If a writer’s popularity is to be
gauged by the number of quotations from him known to the masses, then there is
none else in the range of Hindi to stand before Tulsidasa”.
One
of the important characteristics of the Indian civilization is the strength we
derive from the characters in Mahabharata and Ramayana. As a child my mother
read out these epics to me from the Amar Chitra Katha, sub-consciously they
seem to have impacted my mind, whenever in trouble I draw inspiration from one
of the characters therein. Interestingly I saw a movie ‘Lord of the Rings’, big
hit, that to my mind was totally inspired from the Mahabharata. I could
actually identify similar characters, Arjun, Bhim and Ghatotkach to name a few.
Tulasi-dasa
wrote many other devotional works of which Vinaya-Patrika (letters of Prayer)
is most well-known. He preached pure devotion of God but believed in a personal
God with attributes as was represented by Rama, an avatar of Vishnu. He died on
1623.
The
spirit of Tulasi-dasa encouraged many writers like Agra-dasa and Nabhaji-dasa
who wrote in Braj-bhasha, the famous Bhakti-mala (the garland of saints) that
gives accounts of Vaishnava saints from the early period down to 1600. Another
set of poets worshipped Krishna and drew inspiration from BhagavataPurana
instead of the Ramayana,Surdasawas
one of them lived between 1503 to 1563 and wrote thousands of lyrics on the
different stages of Krishna’s life. His Aura-sagara is a collection of songs
mainly devoted to the lilas of Krishna as a child and as a youthful lover of
the gopis, the most important being Radha.
Another
poet of this school was Mirabai
(1498 around to 1546) a Rajput princess married to the prince of Mewar. She was
devoted to Krishna. Her songs were originally composed in Marwari, but their
language has been largely altered to Braj-bhasa dialect of Hindi in order to
make them popular outside Gujarat and Rajasthan. Several works attributed to
her are NarsijiKaMahero, Gitagovinda Ki Tika, Ragagovinda, Garva-gita.
The
Awadhi dialect of Hindi was enriched by a number of Sufi writers who wove some
romantic tales of the folklore type into beautiful allegorical plays by way of
elucidating the characteristics of Sufi doctrines. MaulanaDaud is the author of
the oldest work of this type Chandayan. But the greatest writer of this school
was Malik M Jayasi whose poem Padumavati composed between 1520 to1540 is a
detailed Sufi allegorical treatment of the famous story of Padmini of Chitor.
Literature
in Braj-bhasha flourished under Akbar and was enriched by poets/musicians of
his court like Tansen who wrote highly poetic and sometimes profound songs on
various topics, devotional and descriptive. Another Kesava-dasa (1565-1617)
introduced a deliberately and artificially rhetorical and artistic type of
literature.
Roughly
from the beginning of the 17th century to the middle of the 19th
century Hindi literature took a new turn. This period is called Rita-kala, a
name given to it by Ramchandra Shukla.
Many
talented poets in this period tried to write books on various aspects of
Indians poetics such as rasa, alankara and nayaka-nayika-bhela, on the lines of
Sanskrit rhetorical tradition. Some of them were ChintamaniTripathi 1609 who
wrote Kavya-vivekaetc, Kesavadasa who wrote Rasika-priya in 1591 were poets of
a high order comparable to classical lyrists like Amaru, Govardhana and Jayadeva.
Bhusana
1613 to 1712 wrote heroic poetry of a beautiful type. His panegyrics on Shivaji
in the most musical Braha-bhasa were amongst the most stirring things in the
domain of medieval Indian poetry. His poetry gave hope to the Hindus of that age
when everything seemed lost.
The
most popular poet of the RitiSchool was Biharilal 1600-63 the court poet of Jay
Singh the Raja of Amber for his 700 verses. Its popularity can be judged from
the fact that it was translated into various Indian languages including
Sanskrit. His minute observations of the behaviors of lovers and their physical
/ mental expressions attracted men of culture in the middle ages.
The
last great Hindi poet during this period was LalKavi who in 1707 wrote
Chhatra-prakasa, a beautiful biography of Chhatrasal, the Raja of Bundelkhand.
Guru Govind Singh composed some important works in Hindi mostly in Apabhramsa
style including the autobiographical poem BichitraNatak. His Krishna-katha
1688, Rama-katha 1695 reminds us of Surdasa and Tulasidasa respectively. To
read more the Guru’s attitude to Hindi please go to the article on Punjabi.
The
Hindi literature described above is mostly in verse. Good modern Hindi prose
did not make its appearance before the 18th century.
1707
to 1818
Hindi
literature during this period continued the style and tradition of the previous
period though several writers gave evidence of high style and perfection.
Reference must be made to Bhushana who wrote works on Shivaji in most musical Brajbhasha
marked by ardent patrioticism of a Hindu.
Hindi
prose in KhariBoli and Brajbhasha whose beginnings go back to the 16th
century a.d. was highly developed. Very good progress in KhariBoli i.e. Delhi
Hindi is evidenced by the prose rendering of Yagavasishtha Ramayana completed
by RamprasadNiranjani in 1741 as one example.
The
development of modern Hindi from the beginning of the 19th century
is dealt with below.
1818 to 1905
The
epoch of modern Hindi literature started at the beginning of the 19th
century but its progress was very small until the middle of the 19th
century. There was a beginning of a prose literature but its language –
KhariBoli – was roughly the standard speech of Delhi identical in grammar
(though not in script, higher vocabulary and sometimes syntax) with Urdu, the
Muslim form of Hindi. The extent of this prose was very meager but there was a
vast literature in Brajbhakha, Awadhi and Rajasthani. But there was hardly any
poetry in Khari-Boli, which was employed in prose. This disparity gradually
disappeared in the second half of the 19th century and one common
form of Hindi came to be used in prose and verse, though a few authors wrote in
Brajbhakha and Awadhi.
Like
Bengali Hindi prose owes its origin partly to the efforts of the Christian
missionaries to translate religious texts Bible and of the authorities of Fort
William College in Calcutta to prepare suitable textbooks for students. The
first such author was LallujiLal of Agra who wrote Prem Sagar in 1803 on the
story of Krishna’s life as described in the BhagvataPurana. It is one of the
earliest KhariBoli classics. Pandit Mishra a Bhojpuri speaking scholar wrote
another model work in KhariBoli Hindi prose, the Nasiketopakhyan, based on the
well-known story of Nachiketas in the Katha-upanishad.
The
School Book Society of Agra 1833 did a great service for Hindi prose by
publishing many Hindi text books on different subjects and by 1857 Hindi prose
had taken a great shape although no high literary value works were produced.
The
work commenced by pioneers in the 18th century like PanditDaulatram
and MunshiSadasukhlalNiyaz came to be stabilized and the Midland speech in its
latest phase of a SanskritisedKhariBoli
Hindi started on its conquest of nearly the whole of North India. From
1850 prose style started by LallujiLal became established.
Then
cameHaris-chandraof Banaras
(1846-1884) who had the sobriquet of Bharatendu (Moon of India). He is
universally acknowledged as one of the makers of modern Hindi. There were a
number of other writers around this period who produced personal essays,
humorous and satirical writings, dramas, and reviews and at the same time
translated Sanskrit, Bengali and English works into Hindi. Pandit S Phillauri
of Punjab and LalaShriniwas Das 1851-87 became pioneers in writings original
novels. They believed in blending the best of traditional and modern values
with an Indian bias. By the end of the 19th century the tendency the
influence of Bengali literature was replaced by the English one.
The
next event of great importance was the foundation of the Arya Samaj by Swami
DayananadSaraswati who adopted Hindi was the language of his preaching and
propaganda. Refer to the chapter on Urdu for more details but the Samaj revived
Hindi in Punjab, Western U.P. and Rajpputana. It must be remembered that Hindi
had to face opposition from the officially patronized Urdu. To read about how
Swamiji’s efforts made Hindi replace Urdu as the main medium of communication
in North India and around read please go to the essay on Urdu.
The
greatest novelists and short story writer of modern Hindi is Munshi Prem Chand
(1880 to 1936). The new styles of poetry with a large amount of Bengali and
some English influence came in during the second half of the 19th
century. Among the more well-known poets was Sridhar Pathak and Maithali Saran
Gupta. Hindi journalism came into the field when PanditJugal Kishore of Kanpur
started from Calcutta the first Hindi weekly UdantMartand (the Rising Sun). A
number of renowned journalists flourished during the second half of the 19th
century like Balmukund Gupta of Rohtak and Prabhu-dayalPande from Mathura
edited from Calcutta a weekly newspaper Hindi Bangavasi that was the most
influential Hindi newspaper during the two closing decades of the 19th
century.
1905
to 1947
The
Hindi writers of the late 19th century referred to in the earlier
chapter had a tendency to display their knowledge of Urdu Persian as well as of
Sanskrit. It was not until the beginning of this period that this tendency
disappeared. This was mainly due to the efforts of Premchand who established
his reputation as an Urdu novelist but when he changed over to Hindi the
decisive step had been taken and Hindi finally shook off the allurements of
Urdu Persian. Mahavir Prasad Dvivedi also contributed. His devotion, integrity
and zeal as editor of Sarasvati established him as the architect of Hindi
prose.
Premchand’s
works are translated into Bengali, Gujarati, Marathi, Tamil, English and
Russian. There were some powerful novelists writing in the modern realistic as
well as psychological vein, between who was PandeBachhchanSarmaUgra and
Jinendra Kumar the leading of the psychological novelists in Hindi. Of an
altogether different vein is the writer of historical novels B Lal Verma. There
were a number of other renowned Hindi poets too.
Some
other poets have left a distinct impression on the development of Hindi
literature. Among these may be mentioned SuryakantaNirala who brought in a
completely new movement in Hindi – in freeing the metre from the bonds of rhyme
and fixed length and in bringing into it a new modernistic mystic note known as
Chhaya-vada (literally shadow school). There was Mahadev Verma a poetess also
in a mystic vein. There is a good deal of influence of the Bengali poets,
particularly Rabindra-nath Tagore on this new school as of English poets of the
romantic schools. In Saketa and Yasodhara by M S Gupta there is an evocation of
the spirit of ancient India in a remarkable way.
With
the innovators the KhariBoli form of Hindi came into its own although the
Braj-bhasa still flourishes.
Note - One of the issues on which people particularly
foreigners divide us is that we have so many languages / dialects. While we do
not have to be defensive about it nor seek to explain why we are the way we
are, a reading of the content of this article has made me realize that what we
consider dialects of Hindi today were / are actually languages in their own
right. Due to social / political changes that accompanied the British rule and
Delhi becoming the center of power KhariBoli one of the many forms of Hindi became
mainstream Hindi while others became dialects.
Scripts in India of the
Present Day
Three
distinct type of script are in use to write Indian languages. We have in the
first instance the national system of writing which is of Indian origin and
which goes back to the Brahmi script of the 3rd and 4th
centuries B.C. and earlier. This Brahmi script was a single pan-Indian script
in the centuries before and immediately after Christ. Then as the country split
into different states this script began to change in different areas. After
about 10 centuries of change it gave rise to various present day alphabets of
Indian origin that are currently in use in the country. Of the five groups
three belonged to the North and two to the South. Inn North India we have –
- The
North-Western group to which belong the Sarada script of Kashmir and a
number of allied systems of writing which were current in the various
Western Himalayan States besides Gurumukhi in which Punjabi is written and
Landa in which businessmen of Sindh keep their accounts and write letters.
- The
Nagari script which was originally the script of Western U.P. and
Rajasthan-Gujarat was later adopted by the Maharashtrians (who called it
Balabodha or ‘Script for the use of children’ as opposed to the native
script called Modi, of South Indian affinities, in which Marathi used to
be written. Now the Nagari script throughout North India. It is really the
script from which Western Hindi;Rajasthani and Gujarati speeches were
born.
- The
Eastern Group of North Indian scripts within which the Newari of Nepal,
Maithili, Bengali-Assamese and Oriya. The script was current in its oldest
form in Eastern U.P., Bihar, Nepal, Orissa, Bengal and Assam.
In
South India we have –
- Telegu-Kannada
group.
- The
Grantha-Tamil-Malayalam group. The Sinhalese of Ceylon is an evolved form
of the Grantha from the Tamil country.
The
Sarada script was confined to Kashmir, is dying out, the Nagari script is
replacing and the Perso-Arabic script is now used in J and K. Gurumukhi
unfortunately has got be associated with Punjabi Sardars and is one the reasons
why Khalsa is not followed by other Indians across the country. Being only a
written script Landa has no importance.
The
Nagari is now the most important of the Indian alphabets. It took its present
form about 1000 years ago and is a sister script to Sarada, Bengali and South
Indian scripts. It acquired a fresh prestige during British rule when it
gradually came to be accepted all over India as the pan-Indian script in
printing Sanskrit. This was a direct result of the centralizing tendencies of
the British rule in India. Sanskrit had no single script for the whole of
India, and it was written in the different provincial scripts along with local
languages. But with the establishment of Indian universities the need for a
common script in Sanskrit for use in the whole of India was supplied by Nagari.
The script came to acquire a new name i.e. Dev-Nagari or Divine Nagari because Sanskrit as the language of
the Gods came largely to be printed in it.
The
Bengali-Assamese script is virtually one script – only Assamese differs from
Bengali in one letter, and has an extra letter for the sound of w or v. This
script is very much like Maithili in which Maithili speech is written. Nagari
is replacing Maithili. The Newari Script of Nepal in which the Tibeto-Burman
Newari language as well as Sanskrit used to be written in Nepal is giving way
to Nagari.
Oriya
in its origin is related to Bengali-Assamese, Newari and Maithili but it has
developed some peculiar shapes from the 15th century onwards. It is
used to write and print both Oriya and Sanskrit in Orissa.
Kannada
and Telegu are almost the same script. The Grantha script is derived from the old
script of the Pallavas as it current around 650 a.d. and Sanskrit is written
and printed in the Tamil country in the Grantha script. Malayalam is only a
provincial form of the Grantha and Tamil is an abridged form of the same
Grantha.
During
the 4th quarter of the 19th century, Sindhi, in the hands
of the Hindu administrative officers of the province also adopted an elaborate
form of the Persian script. The Roman script was brought to India by the
Europeans.
Tibetan
- Contacts between I and Tibet
are to have got established around the
sixth century a.d. The imp king Sron-btsansgam-po who occupied the
throne during the first half of the 7th century a.d. He ruled over
Nepal and parts of Assam. A devout Buddhists, he introduced in Tibet the
Sanskrit language and the system of writing from India. He sent Sambhota to
India to acquire a thorough knowledge of Indian scripts, Sanskrit language,
Buddhists scriptures. After returning from India they framed a system of
Tibetan characters and composed a grammatical work.
There
is no doubt that the Tibetan alphabet is derived from the Indian Gupta script
current from fifth to seventh century a.d. The grammar thus composed is used in
Tibetan schools even today.
On
21 March 1948, Mohammed Ali Jinnah, the Governor General of Pakistan, declared that Urdu would be the only official language for both West and East Pakistan. Based on population East Pakistan was
majority,moreover Urdu was spoken by only 7.05%
people of the West Pakistan whereas Bengali was mother language of most East Pakistani
peoples Bangladesh. The people of East
Pakistan (now Bangladesh), who spoke Bengali, protested against this. On 21 February
1952, (8th Falgun 1358 in the Bengali calendar), students in the present day capital city
of Dhaka called for a provincial strike. The government invoked a
limited curfew to prevent this and the protests were tamed down so as to not
break the curfew. The Pakistani police fired on the students despite these
peaceful protests and a number of students were killed. Four of them were Abdus Salam, RafiqUddin Ahmed, AbulBarkat and Abdul Jabbar
According
to a 2009 press release from its Ministry of External Affairs, the government
of India has been “working actively” to have Hindi recognized as an official
language of the UN.In 2007, it was reported that the government would “make
immediate diplomatic moves to see the status of an official language for Hindi
at the United Nations “However, there has been opposition to this from southern
India, where Hindi is not widely spoken.
Although
it has one of the largest number of speakers in the world (approximately 400
million), Hindustani is not an official
language of the UN. The linguistic community is overwhelmingly concentrated in
the Indian sub-continent and is the most spoken language there, but within its
own sub-continent the language faces opposition from states like Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh and to a lesser extent West Bengal in India, who view it as
efforts on part of the Indian Government to impose Hindi on them. English
remains the link language between Hindi and non-Hindi states to this day in
India. The many variants of Hindustani complicate its recognition as an
official language.
Hindi–Urdu controversy
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Status change of
languages
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1837
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1900
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Urdu declared sole national language in Pakistan
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1948
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1950
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The
Hindi–Urdu controversy is an
ongoing dispute—dating back to the 19th century—regarding the status of Hindi and Urdu as a single language (see Hindi-Urdu), and the establishment of a single standard language in certain areas of north and northwestern India. While the debate was officially
settled by a government order in 1950, declaring Hindi as the official
language, some resistance remains. The present notion among Muslims about this
dispute is that Hindus abandoned Urdu Language, whereas Hindus believe that
Urdu was artificially created during Muslim rule.[1]
Hindi and Urdu are literary registers of the Khariboli dialect of the Hindi languages, spoken as a mother tongue by about 45% of
India's population, mostly in modern North and Central India. A Persianized
variant of Khariboli, known variously as Urdu, began to take shape during the Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526 AD) and Mughal Empire (1526–1858 AD) in South Asia.[2] The British East India company replaced Persian with Urdu written in Urdu script as the official standard of Hindi-speaking
Northern provinces of modern day India in addition to English.
The
last few decades of the nineteenth century witnessed the eruption of the
Hindi–Urdu controversy in North-Western provinces and Oudh with "Hindi" and
"Urdu" protagonists advocating the official use of Hindustani with
the Devanagari script or with the Persian script,
respectively. Hindi movements advocating the growth of and official status for
Devanagari were established in Northern India. Babu Shiva Prasad and Madan Mohan Malaviya were notable early
proponents of this movement. This, consequently, led to the development of Urdu
movements defending Urdu's official status; Syed Ahmed Khan was one of its noted advocates.
In
1900, the Government issued a decree granting symbolic equal status to both
Hindi and Urdu which was opposed by Muslims and received with
jubilation by Hindus. Hindi and Urdu started to diverge linguistically, with
Hindi drawing on Sanskrit as the primary source for
formal and academic vocabulary, often with a conscious attempt to purge the
language of Persian-derived equivalents.
Deploring this Hindu-Muslim divide, Gandhi proposed re-merging the
standards, using either Devanagari or Urdu script, under the traditional
generic term Hindustani. Bolstered by the support
received by Congress and various leaders
involved in the Indian
Independence Movement,
Hindi in Devanagari script along with English replaced Urdu as the official
language of India during the institution of the Indian constitution in 1950.
Background
The
main cause of this divide may be attributed to the aspirations of both
communities (Hindu and Muslim) to take their cultural
inspiration which became open contention over the Language during Indian independence. Muslims has mostly looked
towards their Muslim Ummah for cultural inspiration
whereas Hindus generally get inspiration from the ancient Vedic Culture and other ancient
past. During Muslim rule (whose founders were West Asians) people who converted to Islam readily adopted the
culture they brought with them. Persian at that time was considered a prestigious
and important language in many parts of Islamic world like Central Asia. The
founder of Islamic rule in India were from different ethnic background viz.
Turks, Mongols, Arabs, Afghans etc. and all of them used Persian as their lingua franca and court Language.
Hindus considered these things as an alien culture. With the passage of time
things like Sanskrit language, Dhoti, Ayurveda etc. came to associated with Hindus, and Persian Language, Yunani Medicine with Muslims.There also came to be differences in the
cuisine and culture of two communities. During pre-1971 Pakistan, Ayyub Khan once said that "...East Bengalis... still are under considerable Hindu
culture and influence. This is because the Bengali language is Sanskritized and
uses Indic script".
Urdu
became the language of the courts of Muslim rulers who invaded the Indian subcontinent from the eighth century
onwards. It developed from the Khariboli dialect of the Delhi area with an infusion
of words from Arabic, Persian and Turkish. As the Muslim invaders spread in the
Northern India, Urdu interacted with various vernaculars and introduced Persian
words into local languages and absorbed local vocabulary, and over a period of
time developed into a distinct spoken language. Hindi also developed from
Khariboli, albeit with the assimilation of words from local languages and Sanskrit.
Several
factors contributed to the increasing divergence of Hindi and Urdu. The Muslim
rulers chose to write Urdu in Urdu script instead of Devanagari script. In time, Urdu in Urdu script also
became a literary language with an increasing body of literature written in the
18th and 19th century. A division developed gradually between Hindus who chose
to write Hindi-Urdu in Devanagari script and Muslims and some Hindus who chose
to write the same in Urdu script. The development of Hindi movements in the
late nineteenth century further contributed to this divergence.[4]
Paul
R. Brass, Professor (Emeritus) of Political Science and International Studies
at the University of
Washington
notes in his book, Language, Religion and Politics in North India,
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“
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The
Hindi-Urdu controversy by its very bitterness demonstrates how little the
objective similarities between language groups matter when people attach
subjective significance to their languages. Willingness to communicate
through the same language is quite a different thing from the mere ability to
communicate.[4]
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”
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British language policy
In
1837, the British East India Company replaced Persian with local vernacular in
various provinces as the official and court language. However, in North India,
Urdu in Urdu script instead of Hindi in Devanagari script was chosen to replace
Persian.[4][5] The most immediate reason for the
controversy is believed to be the contradictory language policy in North India
in the 1860s. While the then government encouraged both Hindi and Urdu as a
medium of education in school, it discouraged Hindi or Nagari script for
official purposes. This policy gave rise to conflict between students educated
in Hindi or Urdu for the competition of government jobs, which eventually took
on a communal form.[6]
Hindi and Urdu movements
In
1867, some Hindus in the United
Provinces of Agra and Oudh during the British Raj in India began to demand that Hindi be made an official
language in place of Urdu. Babu Shiva Prasad of
Banares was one of the early proponents of the Nagari script. In a Memorandum
on court characters written in 1868, he accused the early Muslim rulers of
India for forcing them to learn Persian. In 1897, Madan Mohan Malaviya published a collection of
documents and statements titled Court character and primary education in
North Western Provinces and Oudh, in which, he made a compelling case for
Hindi.
Several
Hindi movements were formed in the late 19th and early 20th century; notable
among them were NagariPrachariniSabha formed in Banaras in 1893, Hindi SahityaSammelan in Allahabad in 1910, Dakshina Bharat Hindi PracharSabha
in 1918 and RashtraBhashaPracharSamiti in 1926.The movement was encouraged in
1881 when Hindi in Devanagari script replaced Urdu in Persian script as the
official language in neighboring Bihar. They submitted 118
memorials signed by 67,000 people to the Education Commission in several
cities. The proponents of Hindi argued that the majority
of people spoke Hindi and therefore introduction of Nagari script would provide
better education and improve prospects for holding Government positions. They
also argued that Urdu script made court documents illegible, encouraged forgery
and promoted the use of complex Arabic and Persian words.
Organisations
such as AnjumanTaraqqi-e-Urdu were formed for the advocacy of Urdu.Advocates of
Urdu argued that Hindi scripts could not be written faster,
and lacked standardisation and vocabulary. They also argued that the Urdu
language originated in India, asserted that Urdu could also be spoken fluently
by most of the people and disputed the assertion that official status of
language and script is essential for the spread of education.
Communal
violence broke out as the issue was taken up by firebrands. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan had once stated, "I look to both Hindus
and Muslims with the same eyes & consider them as two eyes of a bride. By
the word nation I only mean Hindus and Muslims and nothing else. We Hindus and
Muslims live together under the same soil under the same government. Our interest
and problems are common and therefore I consider the two factions as one
nation." Speaking to Mr. Shakespeare, the governor of Banaras, after the language controversy heated up,
he said "I am now convinced that the Hindus and Muslims could never become
one nation as their religion and way of life was quite distinct from one and
other."
In
the last three decades of 19th century the controversy flared up several times
in North-Western provinces and Oudh. The Hunter commission,
appointed by the Government of India to review the progress of education, was
used by the advocates of both Hindi and Urdu for their respective causes.
Gandhi's idea of Hindustani
Hindi
and Urdu continued to diverge both linguistically and culturally.
Linguistically, Hindi continued drawing words from Sanskrit, and Urdu from Persian,
Arabic and Turkish. Culturally Urdu came to be identified with Muslims and
Hindi with Hindus. This wide divergence in the 1920s was deplored by Gandhi who exhorted the
re-merging of both Hindi and Urdu naming it Hindustani written in both Nagari
and Persian scripts.[4] Though he failed in his attempt to bring
together Hindi and Urdu under the Hindustani banner, he popularized Hindustani
in other non-Hindi speaking areas.
Muslim separatism
It
has been argued that the Hindi–Urdu controversy sowed the seeds for Muslim
separatism in India. However, other historians dispute this, pointing to the
development of Muslim separatism in Bengal where Urdu was not spoken.
Some also argued that Syed Ahmad had expressed separatist views long before the
controversy developed.
Urdu to Hindi
On
April 1900, the colonial Government of the North-Western Provinces issued an
order granting equal official status to both Nagari and Perso-Arabic scripts. This decree evoked protests from
Urdu supporters and joy from Hindi supporters. However, the order was more
symbolic in that it did not provision exclusive use of Nagari script.
Perso-Arabic remained dominant in North-Western provinces and Oudh as the
preferred writing system until independence.[6]
C. Rajagopalachari, chief minister of Madras Presidency introduced Hindustani as a compulsory
language in secondary school education though he later relented and opposed the
introduction of Hindi during the Madras
anti-Hindi agitation of 1965.BalGangadharTilak supported Devanagari
script as the essential part of nationalist movement. The language policy of
Congress and the independence
movement
paved its status as an alternative official
language of independent India. Hindi was supported by religious and
political leaders, social reformers, writers and intellectuals during
independence movement securing that status. Hindi along with English was recognized
as the official language of India during the institution of the Indian constitution in 1950.
HOW HINDI WAS
IMPOSED ON NON HINDI SPEAKERS.
Hindi-Urdu is an Indo-Aryan language and the lingua
franca of North
India and Pakistan It is also known as Hindustani, literallyand historically, as Hindavi or Rekhta. It derives primarily from the Khariboli
dialect of Delhi, and incorporates a large amount of
vocabulary from Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit and Turkic. It is a pluricentric language, with two official forms, Standard Hindi and Standard
Urdu which are standardizedregisters of it. Colloquial Standard Hindi and Urdu
are all but indistinguishable, and even the official standards are nearly
identical in grammar, though they differ in literary conventions and in
academic and technical vocabulary, with Urdu retaining stronger Persian,
Central Asian and Arabic influences, and Hindi relying more heavily on
Sanskrit. Before the Partition of British India, the terms Hindustani, Urdu and Hindi were
synonymous; all covered what would be called Urdu and Hindi today. The term
"Hindustani" is also used for several quite different varieties of Hindi spoken outside of the Subcontinent,
including Fijian Hindustani and the Caribbean Hindustani of Suriname and Trinidad
Urdu is the
national language of Pakistan and an officially recognized regional language of
India. It is also an official language in the Indian states of Andhra
Pradesh, Jammu
and Kashmir, National Capital Territory of
Delhi, Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar which have significant Muslim populations
Hindi +Urdu was collectively called as HINDUSTANI before
the partition of India, Hindi and Urdu has same phonology but after the partition
of India, India made Hindi and Pakistan made Urdu as lingua franc of the
respective country. The kariboli(kadiboli). (Kadi =hard, boli =dialect) dialect which was spoken in Delhi and
adjoining Rohilkand region of western
Uttar Pradesh was made the official language of government after independence.
The oldest languages like BrajBasha, Awadhi, Bhojpuri
which had long and rich literature,
history was discarded and made dialects of Hindi from 1971 census, this made
the 2001 census records two figures, of 258 million (Native speakers) and 422
million (total Hindi speakers) "Hindi" speakers. However, both
figures include languages other than Standard Hindi, such as Rajasthani (ca. 80
million in independent estimates), Bhojpuri (40
million), Awadhi (38 million), Chhattisgarhi (18
million), and dozens of other languages with a million to over ten million
speakers a piece. The figure of 422 million specifically includes all such
people, whereas the figure of 258 depends on speaker identification as recorded
in the census. For example, of the estimated 38 million Awadhi speakers, only
2½ million gave their language as "Awadhi", with the rest apparently
giving it as "Hindi", and of the approximately 80 million Rajasthani
speakers, only 18 million were counted separately, Maithili, listed as a
separate language in the 2001 census but previously considered a dialect of
Hindi, also appeared to be severely undercounted. These separate languages were
made dialect of Hindi and the Kadiboli a dialect (Boli) was made official
language of India and language Indian Union. Without the awareness the Awadhi &Brajbasha speakers of Uttar
Pradesh , Bhojpuri speakers of U.P & Bihar, Maithili &Magahi speakers
of Bihar, Chhattisgarhi speakers of
Chhattisgarh, Garhwali & Kumauni speakers of Uttarakhand, Pahari speakers
of Himachal Pradesh, Marwadi, Mewadi,Mewati, Godwadi, Vagdi, Bagri, shekhawati,
Dhundari, Hadouti and
Banajari(Lambani/Lambadi/Sugali/Nat) speakers of Rajasthan and Haryanvi
speakers of Haryana were made dialects of Hindi, which led to decrease in
native speakers and increase in Hindi speakers. The misconception among
educated and urbanites trated Hindi as the standard language and it’s a sign of
dignity,people started to call themselves asHindiwalas and stopedrespecting and
speaking their mother tongue.These languages are declining within white collars
and urban crowd and Hindi is replacing all over Northern India.
In totalwe can say Indian Government is not imposing
Hindi on Non Hindi speaking states but it’s already imposed on so called 10
Hindi speaking states by killing 50 independent languages. The government is
trying hard to make the language of Delhi and Adjoining Rohilkhand region of
Uttar Pradesh as the lingo franca of whole India. The dialects of Hindi language
are declared as endangered languages by UNESCO by 2010.
The other communities which are getting Hindi Imposition are
Sindhi, Punjabi, Kashmiri, DogriNepali, Kurukh/Oraon, Munda, Bhili and Gondi.
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Name of the
dialects of Hindi
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Number of persons
who returned the dialect as their mother tongue
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Hindi
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337272114
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25. Lamani/Lambadi
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2054537
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1. Awadhi
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481316
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26. Laria
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64903
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2. Bagheli/Baghelkhandi
|
1387160
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27. Lodhi
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68145
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3. Bagri Rajasthani
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593730
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28. Magadhi/Magahi
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10566842
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4. Banjari
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887632
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29. Maithili
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7766597
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5. Bharmauri/Gaddi
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18919
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30. Malvi
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2970103
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6. Bhojpuri
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23102050
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31. Mandeali
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440421
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7. BrajBhasha
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85230
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32. Marwari
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4673276
|
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8. Bundeli/BundelKhandi
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1657473
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33. Mewari
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2114622
|
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9. Chambeali
|
63408
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34. Mewati
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102916
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10. Chattisgarhi
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10595199
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35. Nagpuria
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777738
|
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11. Churahi
|
45107
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36. Nimadi
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1420051
|
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12. Dhundhari
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965006
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37. Pahari
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2179832
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13. Garhwali
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1872578
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38. Panchpargania
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151599
|
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14. Harauti
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1235252
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39. Pangwali
|
14780
|
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15. Haryanvi
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362476
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40. Pawari/Powari
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213874
|
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16. Hindi (kariboli)
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233432285
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41. Rajasthani
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13328581
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17. Jaunsari
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96995
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42. Sadan/Sadri
|
1569066
|
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18. Kangri
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487999
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43. Sanori
|
11537
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19. Khairari
|
14307
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44. Sirmauri
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18280
|
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20. Khortha/Khotta
|
1049655
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45. Sondwari
|
37958
|
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21. Kulvi
|
152442
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46. Sugali
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113491
|
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22. Kumauni
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1717191
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47. Surgujia
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1045455
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23. KurmaliThar
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236856
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48. Surjapuri
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370558
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24. Labani
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13722
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Others
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4642964
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In Pakistan Urdu was made national language which it is
mother tongue of only by 7 % of total Pakisthan population where as Punjabi,
Pashto and Sindhi speakers outnumber Urdu speakers. Urdu was imposed on non urdu speakers.
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